Learn Kotlin 12 (Generics)

Generics

Kotlin provides higher order of variable typing called generics. As in java classes in kotlin may have type parameters .The idea is to allow type (Integer, String,.....etc and user defined types ) to be a parameter . like it would be nice to write a method which could work on the elements in an integer array a string array or an array of any type

class Id(t:T){
var value = t
}
//to create an instance we need to provide the type argument
val id : Id<Int> = Id<Int> (1)

But if the parameters may be infered eg from the constructor argument or by some other means one is allowed to omit the type arguments

val id = Id(1)
//1 has type int so the compiler
//figures out that we are talking about Id<Int>

In other languages like java has a type system is wildcard types and in kotlin doesn't have any instead it has two other things called as declaration-sits and type projections 
Declaration-site variance
suppose we have generic interface Source<T> that does not have any methods that takes T as a parameter ,only methods that return T . in kotlin there are two key words in and out if we can annotate the type parameter T of Source to make sure it only returned(produced)from members of Source<T> and never consumed means that the produced means you can only read from statement
and cannot write

interface Source<out T>{
fun nextT():T
}
fun demo (strs:Source<String>){
val objects:Source<Any> = strs
//this is okay since T is an out parameter
}

The general rule is when a type parameter T of a class C is declaraed out it may occur only in out-position in the members of C but in return C<Base> can safely be a supertype of C<Derived>
in clever words they say that the class C is covariant in the parameter T or that T is a covariant type parameter think C as being producer of T's and NOT a consumer of T's

The out modifier is called a variance annotation and since it is provided at the type parameter declaration site we talk about declaration site variance
The other key word is in it makes a type parameter contravariant it can only be consumed and never produced as example :

interface Comparable <in t>{
operator fun compareTo(other: T):Int
}
fun demo (x:Comparable<Number>){
x.compareTo(1.0)
//1.0 has type Double which is a subtype of Number
//thus we can assign x to a variable of type comparable<Double>
val y:Comparable<Double> = x//OK!
 }

Type projection

Use-site variance:Type projections

It some cases some classes can't actually be restricted to only return T's A good example of this Array

class Array (val size:Int){ 
fun get (index : Int):T{/*....*/} 
fun set(index: Int,value:T){/*....*/}
}

This class cannot be either co-or contravariant in T And this imposes certain inflexibilities here is an example

fun copy(from:Array<Any>,to:Array<Any> ){
assert (from.size == to.size)
for (i in from.indices)
to[i] = from [i]
}

This function is supposed to copy items from one array to another Lets try to apply it in practice:

val ints: Array<Int> = arrayOf(1,2,3)
val any = Array<Any>(3){ "" }
copy (ints,any)
//Error : expects (Array <Any>,Array<Any>)

Here Array <T> is invariant in T thus neither of Array <Int> and Array<Any> is a subtype of the other  because copy might be doing bad things it might attempt to write say a String to from and if we actually passed an array of Int there a ClassCastException would have been thrown sometime later
so we make sure that copy doesn't do any bad things like we need to prevent it from writing and we can :

fun copy (from:Array<out Any>,to:Array<Any>){
//......
}

What has happened here is called type projection the from is not simply an array but restricted (projected) one: we can only call those methods that return the type parameter T In this case it means that we can only call get() .this is our approach to use site variance
you can also project a type with in as well

That's all for this post friends hope you like it to get latest updates on lessons please followby email and don't forget to share follow and comment on this post

Learn Kotlin 11 (Object declaration,properties and fields )

Object Declaration

We have heard about Singleton . which is useful in situations like creating facade objects and kotlin makes it easy declare singleton as here

object HomeManager{
fun registerHomeProvider(provider:HomeProvider){
//....
}
val allHomeProviders:Collection<HomeProvider>
get() = //.....
}

This is called an object declaration and it always has a name following the object keyword just like variable declaration  an object declaration is not an expression and cannot be used on the right hand side of an assignment statement object declarations initialization is thread safe to refer to an object we use its name directly like given below

HomeManager.registerHomeProvider{.....}

Such objects can have supertypes to like given below as

object DefaultListener:MouseAdapter(){
 override  fun mouseClicked (e:MouseEvent){
 //......
}
 override fun mouseEntered(e:MouseEvent){}{
//........
}
}

The points to remember here are that object declaration can't be local (be nested directly inside the function ) they can also be nested into other object declarations or non inner classes

Companion Objects

And in kotlin like in other languages classes do not have static methods in most cases its recommended to simply use package level function instead
And if you need to write function that can be called without having class instance but needs access to the internals of a class for example a factory method you can write it as a member of an object declaration inside class as defined above
and more specifically if you declare a companion object inside your class you can call its members as same as static methods in java /C# like given below

class NadsClass {
companion object Factory{
 fun create():NadsClass = NadsClass()
}
  }

Members of the companion object can be called by using simply the class name as the qualifier as given below

val instance = NadsClass.create()

As the members of companion objects look like static members in other languages ,Those are still instance members of real objects and can for example implement interfaces  and one thing to remember here is that the name of the companion object can be ignored in which the name Companion will be used as for example

interface Factory <T>{
fun create():T
}
class NadsClass{
companion object : Factory<NadsClass>{
override fun create (): NadsClass = NadsClass()
} 
}

There is a way in which on JVM you can have members of companion objects generated as real static methods and fields if you use the @JvmStatic annotation to get more details see java interoperability

Properties and fields

Backing Fields

The backing field cannot be declared  directly in kotlin classes when a property needs a backing field kotlin provides it automatically this backing fields are referenced in the accessors using the field identifier
 

var count = 0
//remember the initializer assigns the backing field directly
set(value){
if (value >=0) field = value
}
The field identifier can only be used in the accessors of the property and the backing fields are generated for a property if it uses the default implementation of at least one of the accessors or if a custom accessor references it through the field identifier
here is an example with no backing field

val isEmpty :Boolean
get() = this.size == 0

Backing property 

To do something that does not fit into this implicit backing field scheme you can always fall back to having a backing property as :
 

private var _table: Map<String,Int>? = null
public val table : Map <String,Int>
get(){
if(_table == null ){
//Type parameter are infered
__table == HashMap()
}
return __table ?: throw AssertionError ("set to null by another thread")
}

This is just the same as in java since access to private properties with default getters and setters is optimized so that no function call overhead is introduced

Thats all for this post guys hope you like this post comment your suggestions and doubts in the comment section and don't forget to share and follow and to get latest lessons and updates on this blog follow by email id 

Learn Kotlin 10 (CLASSES: hi friends this is the continuation of previous post so i kindly request you to read from the first chapter and if you are a beginner its easy to learn just read through and understand it and dont need to by heart it )

Abstract Class

A class and its members can be declared as abstract which means an abstract member does not have an implementation in its class an abstract class is open there is no need annotate it with open we can also override non abstract open member with abstract one

open class Base{
open fun f(){}
}
abstract class Derived :Base(){
 override abstract fun f(){
}
}

Interface

This is certain type of classes which contains declaration of  abstract methods as well as method implementation of the difference between abstract class and interface is that interface cannot store state interface can have properties but they need to be abstract or to provide accessor implementation
an interface is defined using "interface" keyword .A class or object can implement one or more interfaces we can declare properties in interface a property declared may be abstract or it can provide implementation for accessors

interface Firstinterface{
var age:Int //abstract
var withimplementation:String
get() = "twothousand" 
fun mufun(){}
}
interface Secondinterface{
fun sufun(){}
}
class Myclass : Firstinterface,Secondinterface{
//implementing two interfaces

override fun mufun(){
//body
}
override fun sufun(){
//body
}
}

Visibility modifiers

The classes , objects, constructors ,interfaces ,functions,properties, and their setters can have visibility modifiers getters always have the same visibility as their property the visibility modifiers are
packages  :packages are files declared with package keyword and it can contain declaration of classes functions or interfaces functions, properties and classes ,objects and interfaces  can be declared on the top-level directly inside the package
note : local variables ,functions,classes cannot have visibility modifiers

• private: if we mark a declaration private it will only be visible inside the file containing the declaration as if it is inside the class then it will be visible inside the class only
• protected: protected is not available for top-level declaration but inside the class it is same as private but visible to the subclasses too if you override a protected member and do not specify the visibility explicitly the overriding member will also have protected visibility
• internal: the internal classes are which if you mark declaration as internal it is visible everywhere inside the module and if it is in the class any client inside this module who sees the declaring class sees its internal members (module in kotlin a module is a set of kotlin files compiled together like : an intelIj IDEA module, a maven project)
• public: by default the declarations are marked public means your declaration will be visible every where in class any client who sees the declaring class sees its public members

note: to use a visible top-level declaration from another package you should still import it 

//file name is nadeem.kt
package nads

private fun foo(){} //visible inside nadeem.kt only
public var bar:Int = 5 //property is visible every where
private set //setter is only visible inside nadeem.kt
internal val baz = 101 //visible inside the same module

 Object Expressions and Declaration

To modify a class with out explicitly declaring a new subclass for it we use the object expression and object declaration
object expression
to create an object of anonymous class that inherits from sometype we write

 window .addmouselistener(object: MouseAdapter(){
override fun mouseclicked(e:MouseEvent){
}
override fun mouseEntered(e:MouseEvent){

}
})

If a supertype has a constructor appropriate constructor parameter must be passed to it many supertype may be specified as a comma separated list after the colon we can also create an object with no nontrivial supertype  

open class First(){
 public open val y:Int = x
}
Interface Second{....}
val ab:First = object : First(1),Second{
override val y = 15
}
//an object with no nontrivial supertype
fun foo (){
val adhoc = object {
var x :Int = 0
var y : Int =0
}
 print(adhoc.x + adhoc.y)
}

One thing to note here is that anonymous objects can be used as types only in private and local declarations if you use an anonymous object of a return type by using anonymous object as the return type of public function or the type of public property  the actual type of that function or property will be declared as the supertype of the anonymous object or "Any".if you didn't declare any supertype members added in the anonymous object will not be accessible

class mised(){
//private function so the return type is anonymous object type
private fun mis = object{
val s :String = "s"
}
//public fun so the return type is Any
 fun foo ()  = object{
val s : String = "s"
}
fun bar(){
val s1 = mis().s //works
val s2  = foo().s//shows error
}
}

Code in the object expressions can access variables from the enclosing scope and this is not restricted to final variables

fun changename(window:JComponent){
var name1 = "vas"
var name2 = "vas2"
window.addMouseListener(object: MouseAdapter(){
override fun mouseClicked (e:MouseEvent){
name1 = "nak"}
override fun mouseEntered(e:MouseEvent){
name2 = "vak"
}})}

Thanks guys hope you like the post more will be included on the next post to get latest posts please follow by email and follow me and don't forget to share and comment below your suggestions and doubts

Learn Kotlin 9 (Classes and Inheritance3:Hi friends this is the continuation of previous post so i kindly request you to read that before this post. As this blog is also prepared for beginners so i advice you that you don't need to by-heart this lessons just read and understand it if you have any doubt ask in the comment section)

Overriding Methods

Here is an example of overriding methods

open class Base{
          open fun my(){}
          fun my2(){}
}
class Derived: Base {
 override fun my(){
//overrid here
}
}

The override annotation is required here for Derived.my and if it were missing the compiler will complain andif there is no open annotation on functions like Base.my2 then declaring a method with same signature in a subclass is illegal either with override or without it in a final class open members are prohibited a memeber marked override is itself open it may be overriden in subclasses to prohibit overriding you can use the final keyword

Properties

The properties are variables which have a class level scope and which are declared inside the class but outside the methods or functions is called as a property in kotlin these can be declared as mutable using var keyword and immutable with val keyword

class Home{
 var owner:String="alex".
var name:String="mannat"
var lane:String="pk lane"
var address:String= "is address"
}

To use a property we simply refer to it by name

fun copydetails(home:Home):Home{
val details = Home()
details.name = home.name//accessors are called to access the values
details . owner = home.owner
return details
}

Getters And Setters

The getters and setters are methods on which the getter method is used to which returns the value and setter method which sets the value for the method. a full syntax a property is declared as is

var <property name>[:<propertytype>][= <property_initializer>]
[<getter>]
[<setter>]

here the getter and setter are optional and property type is also optional if the type can be infered from the initializer or from the getter return type and for immutable variables with val keyword the setter method is not allowed
here is some examples for default getters and setters for mutable and immutable variables

var age:Int?
//error as the explicit initializer is required, default getter and setter implied
var initialize = 1//has type int default getter and setter
val ages : Int? //has type int and default getter
 

we can write custom accessors like ordinary functions inside the property declarations here is an example of a custom getter

val isEmpty: Boolean
     get() = this.size == 0
   

A custom setter looks like this

var name:String
get.this.toString()
set(value){
setDataFromString(value)
//parses the string and assigns value to other properties
}

By convention the name of the setter parameter is value but we can chose a different one if we need
and you can ignore the property type if it can be inferred from the getter if we need to change the visibility of accessor or annotate it but don't need to change the default implementation we define the accessor without defining its body like

var isEmpty get() = this.size == 0//by getter we know its type boolean
var settervisibility:String = "abc"
private set
//the setter is private and have default implementation
var setterwithannotation:Any? = null
@Inject set //annotate the setter with inject

Overriding properties

The overriding properties works similar to overriding methods were properties declared on a superclass are then redeclared on the subclass must be prefaced with override and they must have a compatible type each declared properties can be overriden by a property with an initializer or by a property with a getter method for example

open class Foo{
       open val numb:Int get(){}
}
class Bar1:Foo(){
      override val numb :Int =...
}

A val property can be overrided with a var property because the val property always declares a getter method and overriding it as a var additionally declares a setter method in the derived class ()
we can use a override keyword as part of the property declaration in a primary constructor

Interface Foo {
val count :Int
}
class Bar1(override val count: Int):Foo
class Bar2:Foo{
override var count:Int = 0
}

Derrived class Initialization Model

A point to note here is construction of new instance of a derived class the first step done is the initialization of the base class (preceded only by evaluation of the arguments for  the base class constructor ) and thus happens before the initialization logic of the derived class is run

Calling Super Class

The super class is the base class of the derived class the code in derived class can call its superclass function and property accessors implementation using the super keyword

Overriding rules

If a class inherits from many implementations of the same member from its immediate superclasses it must override this member and provide its own implementation (using one of the inherited ones ).to denote the supertype from which the inherited implementation is taken we use the super qualified by the supertype name in angle brackets eg:-super<Base>

open class A{
 fun f(){println("A")}
fun a(){println("a")}

}
interface B{
 fun f(){print("B")}//interface will be explained later
fun b(){print("b")}//interface members are open by default
}
class C :A(),B{
//the compiler requires f to be overriden
override fun f(){
super<.A>.f() //call to A.f()
super<B>.f() //call to B.f()
}
}

In here class C is both inherited from both A and B and we have no problem with function a() and b() since C inherits only one implementation of each of this function but for f() we have two implementations inherited by C and thus we have to override f() in C and provide our own implementation that eliminates ambiguity 

Learn Kotlin 8 (Classes and Inheritance2:Hi friends this is the continuation of previous post so i kindly request you to read that before this post. As this blog is also prepared for beginners so i advice you that you don't need to by-heart this lessons just read and understand it if you have any doubt ask in the comment section)

Secondary Constructors

the class can also declare secondary constructor helps to include some extra logic while initializing the primary constructor the secondary constructor are prefixed with constructor keyword here is an example

class Myclass(){
constructor (parent:Myclass){
parent.children.add(this)
}

}

if the class has a primary constructor each secondary constructor needs to delegate to the primary constructor either directly or indirectly through another secondary constructors delegation to another constructor of the same class is done using the this keyword

class Myclass (val name :String){
 constructor (name:String,parent:Myclass ):this(name){
parent.children.add(this)
}
}

here code in the initializer block effectively becomes the part of the primary constructor the delegation to primary constructor happens as in the first statement of the secondary constructor so the code in the all initializer block is executed before the secondary constructor body even if the class has no primary constructor the delegation still happens implicitly and the initializer blocks are still executed

class Constructors {
init(){
println("its the init block")}
 constructor(i : Int){
println("constructor")
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    Constructors(1)
}
//this will be the output
its the init block
constructor

if no primary and secondary constructor are not declared in non abstract class (abstract class will be explained later ) it will generate a primary constructor with no arguments the visibility of the constructor will be public (means visible everywhere) if you do not wan't to have a public constructor you need to declare empty primary constructor with non default visibility

class nodefault constructor(){

}

If all of the parameters of primary constructor have default values the compiler will generate an additional parameterless constructor which will use the default values this makes it use kotlin with libraries like jackson or JPA that creates class instance through parameterless constructors


Creating Instance of classes 

To create a instance of a class we call the constructor as if it were a regular function the creation of instance is known as instantiation.the objects are created from classes by subroutines called constructors an object is an instance of a class instantiation is then also known as construction

val myclass = Myclass ()
val myshow = Myshow("joy mathew")

note that like in java kotlin doesn't have new keyword

 Inheritance

Inheritance is which enables the object to take the properties of other object like inheriting from one object this is termed as the inheritance by the child object inherits from the parent object and in kotlin all the classes have a common superclass "Any" this is the default superclass for a class with no supertypes declared. To declare an explicit supertype we place the type after a colon in the class header here is an example :

open class Base (p:Int)
class Derived (p:Int): Base (p)

The open annotation on a class is the opposite of final keyword in java language(the class with final cannot be subclassed) it allows others to inherit from this class. By default all classes in kotlin are final
If the derived class has a primary constructor then the base class can (and must be) initialized there using the parameters of the primary constructor if the class has no primary constructor then each secondary constructor has to initialize the base type using the super keyword or to delegate to another constructor which does that . In this case different secondary constructors can call different constructors of the base type

class Myview : View {
           constructor (ct : Context ): super(ct)
            constructor(ct : Context,attr :Attributeset):super(ct)
}

Overriding Methods

 The overriding a method is a feature in which allows the subclass or child class to provide a specific implementation of a method that is already provided by one of its superclasses or parent classes Kotlin requires explicit annotations for overridable members (we call them open ) and for overrides

Thats all for this post guys the overriding methods will be continued in the next lesson i feel sleepy so hope you like my post if you have any suggestions or doubts feel free to add  it on the comment section and don't forget to share to get latest updates on this lesson follow by email and follow me thanks for your support guys

Learn Kotlin 7 (Control Flow 3 and Classes and Inheritance1:Hi friends this is the continuation of previous post so i kindly request you to read that before this post. As this blog is also prepared for beginners so i advice you that you don't need to by-heart this lessons just read and understand it if you have any doubt ask in the comment section)

Break and Continue statement

The break statement is used to terminate the nearest enclosing loop the break keyword terminates the controller flow if some condition has failed . before going to examples here is one thing to learn that is label any expression in kotlin may be marked with a label labels have an followed by @ signs for example foo@,myfunc@ etc are valid labels to label an expression we just put a label in front of it here is an example 

loop@ for (i in 1..5){
for (j in 1..3){
if (i ==2) break@loop
}
}

A break qualified with the label jumps to the execution point right after the loop marked with that label
Continue statement is the opposite of the break statement if continue is put here it will proceed to the next iteration of that loop

Classes and Inheritance

A class is a blueprint or prototype from were which objects are created it represents the set of properties or methods that are common to all objects of one type when we are creating a class it's describing  how the object should be made an object may have different instance variable values the objects of the class may have same methods but its behavior may be different simply an object have states and behaviors and an object is the instance of a class
           now we should go somewhat briefly to explain the class with samples so the classes in kotlin are declared using the class keyword

class Myclass {
}

The class name here is Myclass the class declaration consists of the class name the class header (specifying its type parameters the primary constructors etc(type parameter and primary constructor are explained below)) and the class body surrounded by curly braces both the header and body are optional if the class has no body curly braces can be omitted like

class Empty

Now we can see what is a type parameters and the primary constructors

Type parameters

The type parameters are placeholder for a specific type which we will see in the following lessons

Primary Constructors

The constructors are the block of code which are similar to method (methods are like functions inside the class ) thats called when an instance of an object is created and like methods constructor doesn't have return types and the name of constructor must be same as the class name
                A class in kotlin can have a primary constructor and one or more secondary constructor it comes after the class name(optional type parameter)

class Dog constructor(Name : String){

}

if the primary constructor doesn't have any annotations or visibility modifiers we can omit the constructor keyword the primary constructor cannot contain any code initilization code is placed in the initilizer block with init keyword here is an example

class myclass(name: String){
val firstname = "firstname = $name".also (::println)
init{
println ("first initializer block that prints ${name}")
}
val namelength = "namelength = ${name.length}".also(::println)
init{
println ("second initializer block that prints ${name.length}")
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    InitOrderDemo("nadeem")
}
//the out put will be as following
firstname = nadeem
first initializer block that prints nadeem
namelength = 6
second initializer block that prints 6

As given above the first constructor second constructor are made and outputs as first initializer and second initializer you can clearly learn from the above code parameters of the primary constructor can be used in the initializer block they can also be used in the initializers declared in the class body
if the constructor has annotations or visibility modifiers the constructor keyword is required and the modifiers go before it

class Customer public @Inject constructor(name: String){
}

The constructor given above have the public which is a visibility modifier (which defines the visibility of this class) and @Inject is the annotation here

Thats all for this post.Hope you like the post follow by email or follow me to get latest updates on this lesson and don't forget to share and comment below your suggestions and doubts thanks guys

Learn Kotlin 6 (Control flow 2:Hi friends this is the continuation of previous post so i kindly request you to read that before this post. As this blog is also prepared for beginners so i advice you that you don't need to by-heart this lessons just read and understand it if you have any doubt ask in the comment section )

for Loops

for loop iterates through anything that provides an iterator and here is an example then we can explain about the for loop :

for(items in collection) print (item)

here the for loop arguments are a "collection" and "items" the elements in the collection is put on items one by one and printed out in the print statement inside the for loop until collection is over. the body can be a block also like given below as:

for (items:Int in ints){
//the code to be executed here
}

the for loop has a member or extension function which is iterator() whose return type has a next() and hasnext() function which returns boolean all of this three function have to be marked as operators to iterate over a range you can use range expression for example:

for (i in 1..5){
 println(i)
}
for (i in 6 downTo 0 step 2){
println(i)
}
//the output will be as
1
2
3
4
5
6
4
2
0

the first one were i is printed out the value from range 1 to 5 and in the second for loop i is assigned value from 6 to 0 going down so the "downTo" keyword is used and printed out from 6 to 0 with a step of 2 so it out puts 6,4,2,0 with a difference of 2
A for loop over a range or an array is compiled to an index based loop that does not create an iterator object here is

var array = arrayOf("a","b","c")
for(i in array.indices){
println(array[i])
}
//the output will be as
a
b
c

In here we can see that the array indices are put on the i and printed out as array[i] now there is other one that is

var array = arrayOf("a","b","c")
for ((index,value) in array.withIndex()){
println("the value at $index is $value")
}
//it will print out as
the value at 0 is a
the value at 1 is b
the value at 2 is c

In here the index of the array is put on the index argument and value is put on the value argument and printed out .

while and do while loop

while loops and do while loop works same as  in java language

var x = 6
while(x < 2 ){
print(x)
 x--
}
var y = 2
do {
y++
}while(y<10)

In here the first while loop will execute the statement x-- means it decreases the value of x by one each time until the condition in the while loop become true and the next is the do while loop where the statement in do will execute until the condition in the while loop becomes true and the difference between while and do while loop is that in do while loop if the condition became true then also it will execute one time before the condition is checked so the result of while loop above will be as
6,4,3 and the result of do while loop will be 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 here the the condition is less than 10 but it is executed till 10 that is the difference

 Return statements

The above three are the kotlins structural jump expressions return statement terminates the execution of a function and returns control to the calling function and also can be used to return the value which comes as a result of the function to the calling function by default returns from the nearest enclosing function or anonymous function we can now see an example

var x = 32
var y = 34
fun add (x:Int,y:Int):Int{
 return x+y;
}
print(add(x,y))
//it will output the value as 66

here we have a function called add and it will return the sum of x and y and is printed using the print statement

Thats all for this post guys hope you like the post to get the latest posts on this follow by email and follow me don't forget to share and comment below your doubts and suggestions Thankyou all  

Learn Kotlin 5 (Control Flow:,Hi friends this is the continuation of previous post so i kindly request you to read that before this post. As this blog is also prepared for beginners so i advice you that you don't need to by-heart this lessons just read and understand it if you have any doubt ask in the comment section)

CONTROL FLOW

The control flow is the way which controls the flow of statements to be executed in here the control flow keywords controls the statement which is to be executed first and there are keywords which can be used to repeat the statements here are the keywords given below

if expression

The if is an expression which returns a value in kotlin as in the english language like after the if keyword a condition is written if the condition is true the statement coming after the if statement will be executed there is also a way in which we can go for a else statement to execute if the if condition become false for example

// it is the traditional way
var name = bas
if (a<b) name = nas
//like other languages there is no terenary operator as "if" works fine here
var id = 123
if (32<33){
            id = 365
}
else{
            id = 284
}
//if as an expression
val name = if (a<b) nas else  jas

if branches can be blocks and the last expression is the value of a block

var mass = if (a>b){
             print("choose a")
             a
}else{
          print ("choose b")
           b
}

one thing to note here is that if you are using if as an expression rather than the statement (like in if statement assigns the value for "mass" in the above statement) then you should include the else branch 

When Expression

The when expression works as switch statement in other c like languages here is an example how when is used as

var name =23
when (name){
1 -> print("the value of name is 1")
2 ->print ("the value of name is 2")
else -> {
      print("value of name is 23")
}
}

in the above sample we can see that the argument in the when expression is given as "name" and the value of "name" is 23 the arguments in the when expression which evaluated sequentially with the branches in the when block like here "name" value is evaluated with 1 and 2 and if the value is same as 1 the output will be "the value of name is 1" and if it is 2 it will print "the value of name is 2"
and if those two values are not evaluated true then the else block will be executed when can be used as a expression or as a statement if it is used as an expression then the value of the satisfied branch becomes the value of the overall expression and if the when used as a statement then the values of the individual branches are ignored as explained above for if expression each branch can be a block and its value is the value of the last expression in the block if  when  is used as an expression then else is mandatory
 if there are many cases are to be handled in the same way we can use comma as example

when (name){
0,1 -> print("the value is either one or zero ")
else->print("the value is 23")
}

We can use arbitrary expressions as branch conditions

when(name){
parseInt(s)->print("the value is s")
else ->  print("otherwise")
 }

We can also check that if the given argument is in the given range or collection with in or !in

when (name){
in 1..10 -> print("name is in the range of 1 to 10")
!in 10..19 ->print("name is not in the range 10 to 19")
else - > print("otherwise")

}

we can also check if the value is certain type or is not using is and !is

when (name){
is String -> print ("the value is a string")
else -> false
}

The when statement can used as a alternative for if else statement if no argument is supplied the branch conditions are simply boolean expressions and a branch is executed when its condition is true
example :

when{
name isodd -> print ("name is odd")
name iseven -> print("name is even")
else -> print("name is nothing") 
}

Thats all for this post guys hope you like the post if any doubts comment below and to get latest updates on my blog follow by email and follow me don't forget to share and comment below thanks

Learn Kotlin 4 (Basic Types 2 and packages: ,Hi friends this is the continuation of previous post so i kindly request you to read that before this post. As this blog is also prepared for beginners so i advice you that you don't need to by-heart this lessons just read and understand it if you have any doubt ask in the comment section)

Strings

The strings are a sequence of characters either as a literal constant or as some kind of variable in kotlin strings are represented by the type String . strings are immutable and it's characters can be accessed by indexing operation . s[i] a string can be iterated over with a for -loop (for-loop will be explained in the coming lessons ) we can concatenate string using + operator it can also be done for other types also as long the first element in the expression is string here is an example

val a = "abc" + 1
println(a + "nads")

The above code shows how the string abc is concatenated with 1 and then it is printed out as "abc1nads" by concatenating a and nads kotlin has two types of string literals they are escaped string literal and raw strings escaped strings are which that may have escaped characters in them and raw strings are which that can contain new line and arbitary text here is an example of escaped string

val s = "Hello World\n"

here the escaping is done in the conventional way with a backslash
A raw string is delimited by triple quotes contains no escaping and can contain new line any other character example

val o = """for (c in "value")
                     println(c) """

The leading whitespace can be removed using the function trimMargin()

val text = """
                     |this is the first line
                     |this is the second line
                     |this is the third line
                     |this is the fourth line
                 """,trimMargin()

the | is used as margin prefix but you can choose another character and pass it as a parameter like trimMargin('>')

String Template

         strings may contain template expressions means the pieces of code which are evaluated and concatenated with the string which starts with a dollar sign like $a and contains like a simple name or an arbitrary expression in curly braces here is some examples

val i = 14
println("i is $i")
//this prints 'i is 14'
//another one with an arbitrary expression in curly braces
val a = "abc"
println("$a.length is ${s.length}"  )
//prints "abc.length is 3"

Templates are supported both inside the raw string and escape string if you need to represent a literal $ character in a raw string which doesn't support backslash escaping we can use the following syntax given below

val price = """
           $('$')9.99
            """

Packages

The packages is a namespace that contains the set of related classes all the contents such as classes and functions of source file are contained by the package this package is to be declared first in the kotlin project for example
 

package nads.sani
fun me(){}
class myclass{}

So as explained above the me functions full name is nads.sani.me and the full name of myclass is nads.sani.myclass if the package is not specified the contents of such a file belong to default package that has no name. A number of packages are imported to kotlin as default for example

• kotlin.*
• kotlin.annotation.*
• kotlin.collections.*  
• kotlin.comparison.*
• kotlin.io.*
• kotlin.ranges.*
• kotlin.sequences.*
• kotlin.text.*

Additional packages are imported depending on the target platform
Like JVM(java):

• java.lang.*
• kotlin.jvm.* 

And for Js(Javascript):

• kotlin.js.*

Imports

Not only default imports there are also other imports can be include in here
We can import either a single name like:

import nads.sani//sani is now accessible without qualification

Or we can include all the accessible files from the nads file by using:

import nads.*//by using the * at last all the files from the nads are included here

And if there is a name clash in our file we can use the as keyword here to use our desired name by changing it to other name in the file for example

import nads.sani //sani is accessible here
import jack.sani as chani  //access the features of jack.sani by using chani

Some facts on imports

• the import keyword is not only restricted to importing classes can also be used on other declarations like:Top level function and properties,function and properties declared in object declarations,enum constants
• like in java kotlin doesn't have a "import static" syntax all of this declarations are imported using the regular import keyword

Thats all for this post guys more will be included in the next post hope you like the post to get the latest update on this blog please follow by email or follow me and don't forget to share and comment below 

LEARN KOTLIN 2(BASIC SYNTAX)

                                     BASIC SYNTAX

                        First we must add the package specification means A package is a namespace that organizes a set of related classes and interfaces. Conceptually you can think of packages as being similar to different folders on your computer. and also some import statements should be added example "import java.util " which is like the package which contains specific set of tools which can be used to implement certain tasks like It contains the collections framework, legacy collection classes, event model, date and time facilities, internationalization, and miscellaneous utility classes (a string tokenizer, a random-number generator, and a bit array).    
               
                    

package my.demo

import java.util.*

// ...

                   FUNCTIONS 

The function is started with the fun key word followed by a function name which is to be given by you then a bracket where we need to place our parameters the parameters are certain values where the function works on and then returns a result then the parameters are followed by the return types to know about data types click here :different models of function are given below first function with integer parameters and integer return type

fun sum(a: Int, b: Int): Int {
    return a + b
}  

 Function with an expression body and inferred return type

  fun sum(a: Int, b: Int) = a + b

Function returning no meaningful value: 

 fun printSum(a: Int, b: Int): Unit {

    println("sum of $a and $b is ${a + b}")
}

Unit return type can be omitted:

fun printSum(a: Int, b: Int) {
 println("sum of $a and $b is ${a + b}")
 }

for more details on function you can click this link here

Define Variables

      variables can be assigned in two ways they are like mutable variables like
where the variables can be changed, increase or decrease       

var x = 5 // `Int` type is inferred
 x += 1

The other type of variable is the immutable variable type where variables cant be changed

val a: Int = 1 // immediate assignment
val b = 2 // `Int` type is inferred
val c: Int // Type required when no initializer is provided
 c = 3 // deferred assignment

                                       COMMENTS

the comments are In programming, comments are portion of the program intended for you and your fellow programmers to understand the code. They are completely ignored by the Kotlin compiler (Kompiler). Just like Java and JavaScript, Kotlin supports end-of-line and block comments.
examples are given below
 

// This is an end-of-line comment
 /* This is a block comment on multiple lines. */

                                       String Templates 

 

the string template is kotlin's good feature which the Strings may contain template expressions, i.e. pieces of code that are evaluated and whose results are concatenated into the string. A template expression starts with a dollar sign ($) and consists of either a simple name:

var a = 1 // simple name in template:
val s1 = "a is $a"
//prints a is 1

or an arbitrary expression in curly braces:

val s = "abc"
println("$s.length is ${s.length}") 

// prints "abc.length is 3"

Templates are supported both inside raw strings and inside escaped strings. If you need to represent a literal $ character in a raw string (which doesn't support backslash escaping), you can use the following syntax:

val price = """ ${'$'}9.99 """

To get more on string template click here

                              Conditional Expressions 

 

fun maxOf(a: Int, b: Int): Int {
if (a > b) {
 return a }
else {
 return b }
}

The if-else expression in here works as the condition comes after the "if"  statement in the bracket is true then the statement that comes after the "if" statement will work else the statement that comes after "else" statement will work

                   Using nullable values and checking for null

A reference must be explicitly marked as nullable when null value is possible.to know more about null safety and its details click here

 

The is operator checks if an expression is an instance of a type. If an immutable local variable or property is checked for a specific type, there's no need to cast it explicitly:

fun getStringLength(obj: Any): Int? { if (obj is String) {
 // `obj` is automatically cast to `String` in this branch return obj.length
} //`obj` is still of type `Any` outside of the type-checked branch return null
 }

OR

fun getStringLength(obj: Any): Int? { if (obj !is String) return null // `obj` is automatically cast to `String` in this branch return obj.length }

                           More Will Be included in the coming chapters about classes and type casts

                                 USING for LOOPS

val items = listOf("apple", "banana", "kiwifruit")
 for (item in items) {
 println(item)
}

The "for" loop here is working like here the values in the items are put in to item as one by one and the code in the curly bracket is executed

                              Using while loop

val items = listOf("apple", "banana", "kiwifruit")
var index = 0
while (index < items.size) {
println("item at $index is ${items[index]}")
 index++
 }

while loop and do-while loop these are certain statements used the while loop will execute the code in the curly bracket until the condition in the bracket is true and in do-while loop the code in the curly bracket is executed until the condition in the while loop statement is true

do {
val y = retrieveData()
 } while (y != null) // y is visible here!

                              Using when expression

when (x) {
 1 -> print("x == 1")
 2 -> print("x == 2")
else -> {
// Note the block
print("x is neither 1 nor 2")
 } }  }

when matches its argument against all branches sequentially until some branch condition is satisfied. when can be used either as an expression or as a statement. If it is used as an expression, the value of the satisfied branch becomes the value of the overall expression. If it is used as a statement, the values of individual branches are ignored. (Just like with if, each branch can be a block, and its value is the value of the last expression in the block.)

The else branch is evaluated if none of the other branch conditions are satisfied. If when is used as an expression, the else branch is mandatory, unless the compiler can prove that all possible cases are covered with branch conditions.

                                      Using ranges

The range method Check if a number is within a range using in operator:

val x = 10
val y = 9
 if (x in 1..y+1) {
 println("fits in range")
}

It will iterate over the given range

                                 

                                        USING COLLECTIONS

A generic collection of elements Methods in this interface support only read-only access to the collection; read/write access is supported through the Mutable collection interface.

Iterating over a collection:

for (item in items) {
println(item)
 }

Checking if a collection contains an object using in operator:

when {
 "orange" in items -> println("juicy")
"apple" in items -> println("apple is fine too")
 }

Using lambda expressions to filter and map collections:

fruits
.filter { it.startsWith("a")}
.sortedBy { it }
 .map { it.toUpperCase() }
 .forEach {println(it)}

               Creating basic classes and their instances:

a class is an extensible program-code-template for creating objects, providing initial values for state (member variables) and implementations of behavior (member functions or methods).In kotlin the
example are like :

val rectangle = Rectangle(5.0, 2.0) //no 'new' keyword required
val triangle = Triangle(3.0, 4.0, 5.0)

More on classes will be on the coming posts

THANKS FOR VIEWING THIS BLOG HOPE YOU LIKED AND LEARNED FROM THIS BLOG TO INCLUDE MORE FOR THIS BLOG PLEASE SHARE AND COMMENT I WILL MAKE (I.A) THIS BLOG AS SIMPLE AS POSSIBLE FOR LEARNERS

START KOTLIN 1

Hi friends lets start to learn kotlin i will make it as simple as possible its is also prepared for beginners so for them i advice not to by heart this lessons just understand it

 

                          Kotlin is a functional language and very easy to learn the syntax is very similar to java code so those who know java will be a great advantage  it is accepted as the first official language of android development

                              First we need to install java 8: Kotlin runs on JVM, hence. it is really necessary to use JDK 8 for your local Kotlin development. you have to set the environment variable for JAVA such that it can work properly if you dont know then you can google it. To verify your installation in Windows operating system, hit “java –version” in the command prompt and as an output it will show you the java version installed in your system. To install java go to this link  and install version jdk8 or above.

                            And then you have to install an IDE for your work you can install any one which works with kotlin for example NetBeans,Intellij,Eclipse It is always recommended to use the recent software version to drag out maximum facility from it.

  Starting on IntelliJ IDEA.

Install a recent version of  IntelliJ IDEA kotlin is bounded with IntelliJ IDEA starting from version 15 you can download the community edition from this link

 

 After installing  we need to open it and then in the file menu on the left bar select new -> project->we select the java sdk option kotlin works with java jdk 1.6  Also select the kotlin(java) check box as given above and then click next 

          

   

after that give a name for your project in the options as above i have created my project name as nadeemnew

 and now we have our project created with the folder structure as given above.

Now we need to create kotlin file under the src folder any name can be given i have named here nads select the src file right click select file and then select kotlin File/Class you can see it on the above image once we have the file created we need to type the main routine which is the entry point to the kotlin application In our IDE IntelliJ IDEA offers us a template to do this quickly 

just type main in the file we created and press tab there will be a function created as below 

and here we have added a println () statement which will print the statement in the braces

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
   println("Hello, World!")
}

okay now after typing this code we need to run the application for that we can 
select the run menu on the right pane of the menu bar there select the kotlin file

to run and then press the run or there will be run symbol in the main function 

left part click there and select the kotlin file if there is no problem the

application will work well and the result will be shown in the run tool window 

as given below

 now we have our first kotlin programme running see you in the next post there we 

will learn about basic syntax of kotlin  

Thats all for this post friends hope you like this post please share my blog and comment your suggestions so that i can improve this post for an easy learning of kotlin language.And if you wish you to get latest updates on this lesson then follow by email id  or follow me